By Quinn Hammon ’26

Major: English; Minors: Creative Writing and Art & Art History

Contributor Biography: Quinn Hammon is excited to be published in the Washington College Review for the first time! He’s a junior and an English major, with minors in Creative Writing and Art and Art History. You can find him working in the Writing Center and find his comics published in The Elm!

Brief Description: This is a research essay about the early modern Spanish figure Catalina de Erauso, also known as the Lieutenant Nun. The paper focuses on Erauso’s unconventional expression of gender and how they navigated society presenting as both a man and a woman, depending on the period of their life.

The following was written for ENG 303: Women Writers to 1800

Written in approximately 1625 and garnering a sensational reception even centuries later, Catalina de Erauso’s autobiography Lieutenant Nun: Memoir of a Basque Transvestite in the New World showcases the adventures of a female conquistador who spends most of their life presenting as a man. Among modern critics, Erauso’s gender presentation has sparked extensive discussion and debate. The general lack of internal reflection and distant time period of the memoir make it difficult for today’s reader to grasp how Erauso may have conceptualized their own gender. In the spirit of this ambiguity, this essay will refer to Erauso with the neutral pronoun “they” where others have used a variety of other gendered or ungendered language. Throughout the last several decades of scholarship, Erauso has been especially popular among queer studies scholars and has been speculatively defined as a lesbian, a trans-masculine ancestor, a person existing outside of the gender binary, and a variety or combination of other possible identities. Borrowing from “Jack Halberstam’s idea of a ‘politics of transitivity’ in which trans studies becomes ‘a site of possibility rather than diagnosis’” (LaFleur et al. 17), the potential for a queer understanding of Erauso’s experience is certainly possible, although it is ultimately impossible to settle on a “diagnosis.” What is undeniable, however, is that during Erauso’s lifetime in the early seventeenth century, crossdressing and romantic relationships with the same sex were “illegal and subject to prosecution, in both Spain and the American Colonies” (Aresti 404), meaning Erauso was functioning in a precarious position outside of the accepted performance of gender. That said, almost paradoxically, Erauso was simultaneously heralded as a hero by much of the Spanish nobility, including King Phillip IV, who awarded them a pension in acknowledgement of their military accomplishments (Erauso 74). This surprisingly positive reception was perhaps because, whether they were working with an understanding of themself that aligns with what we would today define as queer or not, Erauso was someone extremely adept in intuiting and performing the gendered ideals expected of them in a variety of different settings. Erauso embodied the ideal of a man and the ideal of a woman when necessary, allowing them to be accepted in society even as they subversively played both roles. Throughout Lieutenant Nun, Erauso’s fluid performance of both masculine and feminine virtues solidifies their status as a colonial Spanish hero despite, simultaneously subverting the acceptable gender conventions of the period.

On the level of individual, interpersonal interactions, Erauso demonstrates their ability to mold their performance of gender to best fit their current social situation. Their dual-edged performance ultimately helps them achieve a double acceptance in which men and women both perceive Erauso as one of their own, and therefore nonthreatening, during different sections of the story. For example, during Erauso’s military exploits in the New World, the text implies that they effectively fit in among the ranks of soldiers in a decidedly male environment. Their memoir describes how, after encountering their brother in Chile, “[they] stayed behind as [their] brother’s soldier, and dined at his table for three years, all the while never letting on to [their] secret” (19). In the social space of a dinner table, Erauso so effectively performs according to masculine expectations that they “never let on” that they are biologically female. Their ability to so thoroughly pass as male, even for the span of three straight years, allows them to find acceptance in the military environment of the New World. However, this masculine performance contrasts with their equally effective ability to perform femininity at later points in the story. After revealing their biological sex to a senior bishop in Guamanga, Erauso is accepted into the feminine environment of the nunnery of Santa Clara, just as thoroughly as they were into the earlier military setting (66). In fact, they are depicted as being popular among their fellow religious women, with the nuns being “beside themselves when they took leave of [Erauso]” (68). Thus, not only is Erauso able to blend into the feminine space of the nunnery, they are able to socially flourish, clearly accepted as nonthreatening by the women in their environment. Erauso’s ability to socially adapt to both highly masculine and highly feminine spaces shows how their flexible performance of gender allows them to find acceptance on a case-by-case basis despite simultaneously being subversive of the conventional gender binary.

On a much larger scale, public fascination with Erauso during their own lifetime and the lasting iconic resonance of the “Lieutenant Nun” character reveals how their performance of gender, although undeniably unconventional, adhered to popular values enough to sidestep the threat of rejection on the basis of transgressive behavior. Erauso outstandingly embodies the ideals of virtue and heroism for both the seventeenth century Spanish man and woman. During their military exploits in the New World, Erauso’s behavior projects the epitome of patriotism, courage, and offensive military might, making them the ideal masculine hero according to popular convention. This behavior is perhaps best exemplified during one of Erauso’s battles in Chile, in which an army of people native to the area attempt to abscond with Erauso’s company flag. Erauso narrates, “When I saw the flag being carried off I rode after it, with two horsemen at my side, through the midst of a great multitude of Indians, trampling and slashing away and taking some wounds in return. Before long, one of the three of us fell dead, and the two that remained pressed on until we overtook the flag” (20). Erauso’s colorful and sensational description of this battle paints them as a classic Spanish war hero in the New World. They embody the utmost image of masculine might and bravery. They inflict profound violence against indigenous American people, persevere despite injury, and ultimately succeed in rescuing the honor of their company as represented by the flag. In her article “The Gendered Identities of the ‘Lieutenant Nun’: Rethinking the Story of a Female Warrior in Early Modern Spain,” historian Nerea Aresti writes, “Alonso Diaz [a pseudonym of Erauso] had become the very model of a pitiless and bloodthirsty conquistador. As the Chilean historian Victor Rocha puts it, he was the incarnation of the masculine ideology of conquest and conversion” (403). This alignment with the conquistador archetype made Erauso an appealing figure in the public imagination, and, since their performance of masculinity is almost so conventional it seems hyperbolic, Erauso’s possible transgression in their nonconformity to their biological sex is overwritten in the eyes of the seventeenth century Spanish public. Even King Phillip IV of Spain embraced Erauso as a hero, awarding them “a pension of eight hundred crowns a year” (74). The King’s acceptance and praise of Erauso proves the effectiveness of their military heroism as a means of counteracting possible judgment and persecution due to their lifestyle not aligning with their biological sex. According to Jason Stinnett, “Erauso’s social, financial, and military success as a male in the New World is a testament to the credibility of her male performance in the eyes of her contemporaries” (2). Erauso embodies the ideals of masculinity so thoroughly and successfully that their nonconformity to the expected behavior of their biological sex no longer seems to detract from their respectability as they are praised for their service to the Spanish crown.

Erauso also embodies the ideal of the seventeenth century Spanish woman, complicating yet reaffirming the validity of their actions according to the Spanish public and nobility. While Erauso does not conform to the expected behavior of their biological sex, they do, simultaneously and seemingly paradoxically, embody the idealized features of femininity. This contradictory performance of gendered ideals is possible as, during this period, virginity was the “key element of female virtue” (Aresti 405). In their memoir, Erauso describes their encounter with the senior bishop in Guamanga as culminating in the moment they are declared a virgin by two old women who “examine” them, which wins them the Bishop’s favor: “What’s more they had found me to be an intact virgin, as on the day I came into the world. This piece of news touched His Eminence. He dismissed the women and sent for me, along with the chaplain, and in his presence he lovingly embraced me” (66). The bishop’s delighted attitude towards Erauso’s apparent virginity reveals the greater attitudes of the period. The widespread influence of Catholicism lends to “the idealization of feminine purity and obedience through the figure of Mary Immaculate” (Aresti 405). Because Erauso is viewed as having never engaged in penetrative sex, they embody the most important feminine ideal according to the religious standards of their society. Interestingly, and apparently contradictorily, Erauso is depicted as having sexual encounters during the story. In one instance, Erauso describes an interaction with the sister of their employer’s wife: “I had my head in the folds of her skirt and she was combing my hair while I ran my hand up and down between her legs” (17).  Later, they mention, “On occasion, I went with him [Erauso’s brother] to the house of the mistress he kept in town, and on other occasions I went there without him” (19). Both of these comments imply Erauso’s attraction to women and sexual experience, but, because of the limited view of sexuality during the period, neither of these instances were viewed by the seventeenth century Spanish public, nobility, or religious order as affecting Erauso’s virginity. In her book The Lieutenant Nun: Transgenderism, Lesbian Desire, and Catalina de Erauso, Sherry Velasco writes that “lesbian passion was not taken seriously or was not threatening,” and “this relative tolerance of same-sex love between women is presumably based on a male-centered view of female sexuality that assumes that sexually transgressive acts must involve penetration by the phallus or its imitation” (15). By not engaging in penetrative sex, Erauso preserves their virginity by the standards of their day and retains positive standing in the eyes of the church as an exemplary figure of feminine virtue. This perceived virginity counteracts the possible transgression of their masculine behavior and even their potentially sexual encounters with women. Similarly to how their masculine heroism overwrites their unconventionally fluid performance of gender, their feminine virtue also allows Erauso to retain respectability despite not conforming to gendered expectations.

In addition to performing the idealized conventions of both masculinity and femininity, Erauso attained popularity through the very act of their crossdressing “transvestism” as the sensationalization of their “Lieutenant Nun” character captured the public imagination and garnered mass appeal. Erauso, through their adherence to the ideals assigned to both men and women, balances their subversive gender presentation with effective appeals to the gender conventions of their day. The aforementioned preservation of virginity is especially important in cementing Erauso’s reputation as practicing acceptable “transvestism,” a word which, in the context of Lieutenant Nun, serves as an umbrella term for crossdressing and gender nonconformity. In a chapter titled “Hybrid Spectacles: Lesbian Desire, Monsters, & Masculine Women in Early Modern Spain,” Sherry Velasco explains, “This distinction between evil transvestism (used as a heterosexual spectacle) and holy cross-dressing (employed to preserve chastity) undoubtedly influenced the official religious sanction of Erauso’s decision to live dressed in men’s clothing. Her ‘saintly’ motivations could be proved by her success in maintaining her virginity” (37). Because religious leaders such as the senior bishop in Guamanga perceive Erauso as having maintained their virginity, they are able to interpret, realistically or not, that Erauso’s masculine activities are in service of preserving their supposed sexual purity. This religiously acceptable perception of Erauso’s intention allows the otherwise limiting society to be overlook and accept their unconventional gender presentation. Erauso’s perceived noble intentions in their nonconformity are also supported by their heroic acts in the service of the Spanish crown. Their embodiment of masculinity, although misaligned with their biological sex, is apparently in service of Spanish patriotism, further earning Erauso the reputation of an acceptable “transvestite.” Fascinatingly, even Erauso’s “transvestism” itself appealed to certain seventeenth century ideals, although these were related to the concept of monstrosity combined with gender. Sherry Velasco notes, “In a period noted for its fascination and obsession with hybrids and other anomalous ‘curiosities,’ it is not surprising that Catalina de Erauso’s life was originally interpreted and marketed in terms of a monstrous hybrid spectacle” (24). Valasco’s notion of spectacle is textually supported in Erauso’s memoir as they describe “lying low as much as possible and fleeing from the swarms of people that turned up everywhere, trying to catch a glimpse of me in men’s clothing” (73). Although Erauso is established as acceptable in their gender presentation, their combination of masculinity and femininity makes them the subject of intrigue in a society interested in what Velasco calls the “monstrous hybrid.” The fusion of their embodiment of the ideals of masculinity and the ideals of femininity in turn frame Erauso as embodying the ideal hybrid monster, a source of entertainment and intrigue who also upholds gender conventions by exemplifying what both a man and woman should ideally be. The “swarms of people who turned up everywhere, trying to catch a glimpse of [Erauso] in men’s clothing” (73) illustrate the public interest in Erauso as an unusual commodity and simultaneous belief that they are nonthreatening enough to entertain the interested viewer. Even Erauso’s nickname “Lieutenant Nun” reveals this public fascination with their hybridity. “Lieutenant” evokes a masculine and military connotation while “nun” is a clearly feminine title. Velasco additionally touches on this nickname: “The image of a Lieutenant Nun immediately implies the hybridity of opposite categories, the improbable union of male and female, convent and battlefield” (24). Erauso’s exemplification of the hybrid, playing into the public’s fascination with monstrosity while still upholding the acceptable values of masculinity and femininity, even further cements them as a hero of colonial Spain partly despite but also, perhaps, partly because of their unconventional presentation of gender.

By embracing both masculine and feminine virtues and upholding the values of patriotism, colonialism, and female virginity, Erauso adheres to so many gender conventions that they become decidedly unconventional. Their expression of gender, sometimes feminine and often masculine, transcends the acceptable notions of how individuals assigned female at birth should conduct themselves in seventeenth century Spain and the New World. However, despite the possible transgressiveness of their behavior, Erauso was heralded as a Spanish hero for embodying masculine, feminine, and even monstrous ideals. Ultimately, Erauso’s way of unapologetically playing with gender presentation reveals the potential for gender nonconforming individuals to work within and around a patriarchal society that is generally not accepting of those existing outside the gendered norm. Erauso clearly lived on their own terms but negotiated their unconventional behavior with the expectations of the larger society by performing gendered ideals for both men and women. They presented themselves as the ideal of a man—heroic, proud, and patriotic—and the ideal of a woman—perceived as a virgin—allowing them to be accepted as a hero even as they subversively played both roles.

Works Cited

Aresti, Nerea. “The Gendered Identities of the ‘Lieutenant Nun’: Rethinking the Story of a Female Warrior in Early Modern Spain.” Gender & History. Nov 2007, Vol. 19 Issue 3, pp. 401-418.

Erauso, Catalina de. Lieutenant Nun: Memoir of a Basque Transvestite in the New World. Translated by Michele Stepto and Gabriel Stepto, Beacon Press, 1996.

LaFleur, Greta, Masha Raskolnikov, and Anna Klosowska. “Introduction: The Benefits of Being Trans Historical.” Trans Historical: Gender Plurality Before the Modern. Cornell University Press, 2021.

Stinnett, Jason. “New World Masculinity: The Lieutenant Nun—Hyperbole or Reality?” Confluencia, October 1 2019. 35(1), pp. 2-14.

Velasco, Sherry. “Hybrid Spectacles: Lesbian Desire, Monsters, & Masculine Women in Early Modern Spain.” The Lieutenant Nun: Transgenderism, Lesbian Desire, and Catalina de Erauso. University of Texas Press, 2000. pp. 13-43.