By Thomas Lundy ’27

Major: Economics

Contributor Biography: Thomas Lundy is a first-year student who is interested in economics, religion and history. Besides his academic interests, he enjoys reading, running, and going to the gym. Thomas hopes to learn more about religion going into the future and wants to further explore eschatology and moral theology throughout his college career. He hopes this paper will provide an insightful perspective on Christian eschatology and that it helps to improve understanding on Christianity as a whole.

Brief Description: This paper explores the history of Christian eschatology from the writings of Saint Augustine to the Reformation and the development of Rapture theology. It discusses the impact of Dispensationalism on the view of Christians toward climate change and the maintenance of the natural world, and the damages Rapture theology can cause when addressing worldly issues.

The following was written for FYS 101-33: The End of the World

Introduction

The history of Christian discourse on the end of the world is a muddied and controversial one that few theologians have ever been united on. The study of the end of the world is known as eschatology, whether it be scientific, philosophical, or, in this case, religious. Within many religions, especially Christianity, eschatology is central to understanding the teachings of how one should live. Eschatology is especially important within Christianity; it is not truly seen as the end of everything but instead as an anticipated time in which Jesus will return to Earth to merge it with Heaven, triumphing over sin and evil once and for all. However, the Church has historically disagreed on how exactly the Last Judgment would work, with differing ideas still contending today. Though this debate has never truly been resolved, throughout history, across the arising sects and denominations that would emerge, there emerged common themes largely agreed upon. However, a new theology would arise within the 1800s: the idea of the Rapture. This paper will explore the history of Christian eschatology, the impact of Rapture theology, and how modern Christians should approach the philosophy surrounding the end of the world.

Early Christianity

The Last Judgment, succeeding the Second Coming, is a foundational and key aspect of Christianity as we know it, and early theologians’ discussions were vital to forming this understanding. The Book of Revelation, the last canonical book of the Bible, provided a window into what may come, and it would provide the structure upon which Christians would base their understanding of the Last Judgment. Within this book, an angel sent by Jesus reveals to the Apostle John that he is triumphant and utilizes symbols to communicate what will come to pass, reassuring his followers of the final victory at the end of the world. Importantly, there is the comparison of Rome to Babylon, and the two polities are used as metaphors for the end of injustice and evil on Earth. The Book of Revelation was just one piece of apocalyptic literature within the Bible, however, and various other books, such as the Book of Daniel, also alluded to the end times. One of the most important Early Church leaders who interpreted these books within the Bible was Saint Bishop Augustine of Hippo. In Augustine’s time, the Roman world was in a rapid state of decay, as Rome itself had just recently been sacked by the Vandals, and the Empire was on its last legs.^[1] Truly, this condition must have inspired thought upon the end of the world, as the prophecy was seemingly happening. Augustine was key in developing the contemporary Church’s theology, where, at the end of the world, God would return to judge the living and the dead, separating the just from the unjust, into those going to Heaven and Hell.^[2] The Early Church, in its forming years, was relatively united in this idea, and as the religion soon became the state religion of many polities within and without the former-Roman world, it would play a key role in eschatological fears throughout much of the European aristocracy.

Medieval Paranoia

The continuation of Christian eschatological discussion led to the development of estimations for the exact time of the end of the world, with nobles and clerics alike attempting to predict the year. During this time of frequent guesswork, an affinity for eschatological literature developed, which was further bolstered by the Pseudo-Methodius of Pathara. This work detailed how the Emperor of the Romans would fight a grand battle against the armies of the Abbasids, reconquering Jerusalem, where the Imperial Regalia would then be surrendered unto God, and the times of the Antichrist would begin. In its attempt to make sense of the Islamic conquests of the Christian Holy Land, this work depicted the Abbasid Caliphate’s armies as the armies of Gog and Magog, an evil horde, frequently referenced within the Old Testament in the Bible. This legend would quickly be adopted by various rulers claiming themselves as the Emperor within the tale, including the Roman Emperor in Constantinople, the Tsar of Bulgaria, and the Emperor of the Franks.^[3] Utilizing the Pseudo-Methodius, the leading powers of Europe elevated themselves to the status of God-chosen rulers destined to win a great victory for Christianity on Earth and bolstered their worldly legitimacy as a result. The popularization of this story also coincided with some of the highest points of European paranoia about the coming of the end times, informing an eschatology of grandeur and close proximity, especially for the ruling elite of the medieval world. The clergy within the Tsardom of Bulgaria was especially interested in the end times, as their relatively recent conversion to Christianity did not prevent them from fully immersing themselves within its eschatology. The Old Slavonic Churches in the country were particularly avid in translating apocalyptic texts, from the writings of Saint Hippolytus of Rome to extra-Biblical books such as the Apocryphal Apocalypse of St. John the Evangelist. The educated elite of Bulgaria, with these newly translated works, began to hypothesize the end of the world, ranging from the years surrounding 992 to 1092.^[4] The intense eschatological efforts of Bulgaria demonstrate a deep fascination with eschatology within Christendom during the medieval era. Within this effort, many theologians attempted to relate the setting of their contemporary world to the prophesized end of the world, which sparked feverish paranoia at times but also served to act as a justification for Divine Right for contemporary Emperors. However, this fascination in eschatology would taper off until a new climatic event occurred where the western Christian world would be fractured.

The Reformation

The times of the Reformation unleashed large ripples that would be felt throughout the entire Christian world, impacting national cultures, literature, and philosophy. One nation deeply affected by this movement was John Milton’s England. 16th century England was brandished with a new Protestant identity, which would develop into the state religion of Anglicanism. English Protestantism emerged during the Reformation, shortly after the Reformed and Lutheran traditions separated from the Roman Catholic Church, and with this emergence of different traditions arose new eschatological thought. Harkening back to previously established beliefs that a time of oppression of Christians foreshadowed the coming of the end times, some Protestants, such as John Milton, believed that the Catholic Church was in covenant with Satan, this belief only strengthening as religious tensions grew. Similarly to the Bulgarians of the medieval era, John Milton wrote extensive literary tales depicting England as the bastion of light against the world which had been swayed by evil, conflating nationalism with holiness. Inspired by Greek epics, Milton’s literary eschatology was one of God versus the Antichrist, with God favoring the English as Zeus favored the Greeks.^[5] Milton, in his admiration for old classical epics, transformed the struggle between Protestantism and Catholicism into one of God versus the servants of the Devil, while simultaneously elevating his nation to the status of the “faithful remnant.” Not only did this writing echo the attempts of the medieval empires to claim divine favor, but it demonstrated a new emergence of Last Judgment interpretations, something that would result in an entirely new theology separate from what had been and, for the most part, continued to be the status quo.

The Rapture

Though the Reformation initially was primarily an attempt to reform the Church from within, as disagreements prevailed, new sects began to arise out of Christianity, eventually leading to the rise of dispensationalist sects. Dispensationalism, the belief that history is divided into multiple “ages,” is a theological ideology that promotes the idea of a “secret rapture.” This “secret rapture” would see the souls of all Christians rise into Heaven, leaving the nonbelievers on Earth to suffer through a time of tribulation. This theology had long-lasting effects on the eschatologies of many Christians, as a new narrative of the end times deeply changed the approach of these individuals toward the world, as well as created new conflict between these dispensationalists and traditional Christian eschatologists.^[6] In some ways, this belief was a deeply positive development; the need to convert others became even greater for the believers of Rapture theology, as evident with Plymouth Brethren member Anthony Norris Groves, who embarked on the first Protestant mission to Arabic speaking people in Baghdad. During his stay in the heart of the Islamic world, Groves did not seek to fear monger and belittle those he sought to save; rather, he humbled himself as Saint Paul had in the earliest days of Christianity and remained there evangelizing despite the loss of his wife and daughter. He was not alone in these efforts, either; he was soon joined by fellow Brethren, such as John Kitto, and his vigor would lead to a new age of mission work.^[7] These efforts served as a renewed call for many evangelists throughout the world, as well as throughout non-dispensationalist traditions, and harkened back to the days of the Apostles, sowing the seeds for an effort that many missions trace their roots to today. However, the evangelization of the Plymouth Brethren was not the only result of dispensationalist thought, and current eschatological discourse within Christianity is deeply contested as a result.

Christian Outlook on Eschatology

The aforementioned divide in eschatological thought is evident by the confusion within Christianity itself over how to approach the coming of The End. Concerns within Christianity toward ideas of the Rapture can be seen within contemporary writings, such as Rossing’s paper on the view of the “American Apocalypse,” referencing current cultural depictions of the end times within the country. Particularly, she focuses on the depiction of the end times within the series Left Behind, and how, although fictional, it helped inform an eschatology of violence. More importantly, however, she denies the validity of the Plymouth Brethren’s Rapture theology, stating that while it may “sound Biblical,” it is not how Christians should perceive the end.^[8] Similarly, Moltmann argues that many Christians have adopted this view of the end, promoting an idea of a violent, vengeful, and evil God. He criticizes those who point to tragedies with incredible death tolls as divine punishment, Christians and non-Christians alike, lamenting how people “other” unbelievers and label them “enemies of God.”^[9] Within both of their articles, Rossing and Moltmann acknowledge the very pressing contemporary feelings of a sort of impending end. Having written both of their pieces in 2007, amidst American involvement in the Middle East, eschatological concerns were especially present, and many Christians were looking at current world catastrophes as signs of the end drawing nearer. However, Rossing and Moltmann believe that instead of living a life informed by an eschatology of violence and fear, Christians should utilize what was revealed by God to obtain hope and better approach how they manage the world. Rossing in particular noted an important misinterpretation of Revelation that is, in a large part, the cause for much of these thoughts. The New Testament, originally written largely in Greek, utilized three words for the English “world.” The problem this creates is that there is no distinction in English translations of the Bible between these three words, being “oikoumene,” “ge,” and “kosmos.” “Oikoumene” referred to the Roman world, as in the empire and its structural society and culture. “Ge” and “kosmos” referred to God’s world, as in the Greek translation of the Bible, God created the latter two, while “oikoumene” is absent from such usage. Thus, in Revelation, God is saying he will destroy those who destroy Earth, not the Earth itself, dramatically changing the meaning of the apocalyptic warnings of the book.^[10] Succinctly, this interpretation informs an optimistic and hopeful view of the end, in which God reunites Heaven and Earth, but begs an additional question: how does modern Christianity guide modern eschatology in daily life?

Humanity and Climate

In the beginning of the Bible, as God created humanity, he gave them authority over the world, ordering that they “Be fruitful and multiply, and fill the earth and subdue it; and have dominion over the fish of the sea and over the birds of the air and over every living thing that moves upon the earth” (GEN 1:26 [RSV]). In our modern world, there are industrialists and politicians who wish only to continue human dominion over our finite resources, not caring about the damage that these practices inflict upon our planet. Far too often, this is falsely justified by God’s orders in Genesis, but in truth, humanity was given dominion to tend the garden that is God’s, not to burn it down. This is especially relevant due to the ongoing climate crisis, something that threatens not only humanity, but the world itself, as rising temperatures and declining biodiversity become exasperated due to anthropogenic actions. Such is believed by Pope Francis, and within his encyclical, Laudato Si’, the Bishop of Rome urges the people of Earth to amend this narrow-minded view, pointing to losses in biodiversity and increasing anthropocentrism in our culture. Moreover, he argues, care for God’s creation is an essential part of faith, and neglecting it has resulted in increasing inequality and the declining health of the natural functions of our planet. ^[11] However, there are large groups of Christians who do not view the climate crisis as an issue, particularly among conservative Evangelicals in the United States. Due to political polarization, many Evangelicals often side against those who advocate for things they deem untrustworthy. This has roots going back to the evolution debate and has had negative effects on the psyche of many Christians toward scientists. Fortunately, these views are often due to misinformation or misconceptions, and education can result in positive change in mindset.^[12] Though many Christians in the modern world are either lax toward or altogether opposed to efforts to amend the climate crisis, there are important figures within Christianity advocating for a change in mindset. They urge for a renewed religious vigor in tending the garden of God, and not simply waiting for the end to come, but utilizing the lives we have been given to enrich the world, not destroy it.

Conclusion

Throughout the history of Christianity, eschatology has always been one of the most important and divisive subjects, and not without cause, as it is key to the entire philosophy of the religion. Unfortunately, throughout history it has been used as a tool of paranoia or justification for harmful mindsets, but this is not how it must be. The development of a theology of renewal and hope is key for Christians to truly embrace their role as the keepers of Earth, and to dedicate their spirits toward mitigating climate change, and ending the cycle of never-ending expansion at the expense of the Earth. Should millions of people across the world suddenly take great care in mitigating these problems, there may be great progress towards enabling a sustainable world and amending the false mindset of never-ending expansion. Moreover, by living lives of hope and readiness for the end of the world, Christians may renew themselves spiritually, and better serve to live what they preach. 

Bibliography

Cho, Dongsun. 2010. St Augustine’s Doctrine of Eternal Punishment : His Biblical and

Theological Argument. Lewiston: Edwin Mellen Press.

Fazio, James I. 2020. “Dispensational Thought as Motivation for Social Activism among

Early Plymouth Brethren.” Journal of Ministry & Theology 24 (1): 91–107.

Francis, Pope. 2015. Encyclical Letter Laudato Si’ of the Holy Father Francis, on Care for Our

Common Home.

 Crawford Gribben 2002. “‘The Worst Sect That a Christian Man Can Meet’: Opposition to the

Plymouth Brethren in Ireland and Scotland, 1859-1900.” Scottish Studies Review 3 (2): 34. 

Hackenbracht, Ryan. 2019. National Reckonings: The Last Judgment and Literature in

Milton’s England. Ithaca: Cornell University Press.

Hollingworth, Miles. 2013. Saint Augustine of Hippo: An Intellectual Biography. New York:

Oxford University Press.

Moltmann, Jürgen. 2007. “The Final Judgment: Sunrise of Christ’s Liberating Justice.”

Anglican Theological Review 89 (4): 565–76.

Rossing, Barbara R. 2007. “Prophecy, End-Times, and American Apocalypse: Reclaiming           Hope for Our World.” Anglican Theological Review 89 (4): 549–63.

Tsvetelin Stepanov. 2020. Waiting for the End of the World: European Dimensions, 950–1200.

East Central and Eastern Europe in the Middle Ages, 450-1450. Leiden: Brill.

Webb, Brian. Hayhoe, Doug. 2017. “Assessing the Influence of an Educational Presentation on

Climate Change Beliefs at an Evangelical Christian College.” Journal of Geoscience Education 272-82.

Footnotes

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^[1] Miles, Hollingworth. 2013. Saint Augustine of Hippo : An Intellectual Biography. New York: Oxford University Press.

^[2] Dongsun, Cho. 2010. St Augustine’s Doctrine of Eternal Punishment : His Biblical and Theological Argument. Lewiston: Edwin Mellen Press.

^[3] Stepanov, Tsvetelin. 2020. Waiting for the End of the World : European Dimensions, 950–1200. East Central and Eastern Europe in the Middle Ages, 450-1450. Leiden: Brill,  32.

^[4] Tsvetelin, 190-196.

^[5] Ryan Hackenbracht. 2019. National Reckonings : The Last Judgment and Literature in Milton’s England. Ithaca: Cornell University Press. p 23

^[6] Crawford Gribben 2002. “‘The Worst Sect That a Christian Man Can Meet’: Opposition to the Plymouth Brethren in Ireland and Scotland, 1859-1900.” Scottish Studies Review 3 (2): 34.

^[7] James I. Fazio 2020. “Dispensational Thought as Motivation for Social Activism among Early Plymouth Brethren.” Journal of Ministry & Theology 24 (1): 91–107.

^[8] Barbara R. Rossing 2007. “Prophecy, End-Times, and American Apocalypse: Reclaiming Hope for Our World.” Anglican Theological Review 89 (4): 549–63.

^[9]  Jürgen Moltmann. 2007. “The Final Judgment: Sunrise of Christ’s Liberating Justice.” Anglican Theological Review 89 (4): 565–76.

^[10] Rossing 2007. “Prophecy, End-Times, and American Apocalypse: Reclaiming Hope for Our World.” Anglican Theological Review 89 (4): 549–63.

^[11] Pope Francis. 2015. Encyclical Letter Laudato Si’ of the Holy Father Francis, on Care for Our Common Home.

^[12] Brian Webb, Doug Hayhoe. 2017. “Assessing the Influence of an Educational Presentation on Climate Change Beliefs at an Evangelical Christian College.” Journal of Geoscience Education 272-82.